by
Paul Martin Lester
From (c) 1999
There are several miscellaneous issues that photojournalists regularly
face that do not fit into the neat and ordered categories of victims of
violence, rights to privacy, and picture manipulations. Nevertheless, when
a photographer is confronted with one of them, the ethical problems the
issues pose can be equally troubling for photographers and editors.
In responses to surveys, telephone interviews, and within the pages of
News Photographer, photojournalists bring up at least 20 issues
that occasionally cause them trouble. The topics in no particular order
are as follows:
ORGANIZATIONAL CONCERNS
The pressure to produce attention-grabbing, award-winning, and
technically pleasing pictures on a daily basis causes a whole host of
problems between editors and photographers. When a newspaper organization
emphasizes photography contests as a way to give raises and promotions,
but does not give photographers time to adequately work on assignments,
the mix can lead to ethical troubles.
The combination of contests and deadline pressures can lead
photographers to take unethical actions they might not attempt at a more
relaxed organization. The use of hidden cameras and other
misrepresentation techniques might be justified. A photographer might
remain a cool, detached, objective journalist who is happy to let a
situation become visually dramatic and not help a subject in physical
trouble. Other, less objective photographers may encourage subjects to
become more violent during a demonstration so that dramatic pictures can
be taken. The photojournalists might rush to the scene of a news event and
break minor traffic laws. Such an action might cause trouble between the
photographer and the police resulting in film confiscation and arrest.
Trying to get a competitive edge over another photographer may actually
result, when many photographers cover the same event in a photo pack, in
all shooters using the same lens and camera angle. Creativity suffers when
every photographer is afraid of missing what some other photographer may
have. Trying to get a picture in a hurry, a photographer might
inaccurately report names and other facts for the caption. Finally,
shooting for contest wins while being pressured by editors to produce
those images quickly, results in strained relationships in the office and
even stress-related illnesses.
In order to take pictures of young, tired children working with
dangerous machinery in factories, Lewis Hine at the turn of the century,
regularly misrepresented himself. He would tell the foreman of a factory
that he was working for the company and needed to take pictures within the
plant. Other times, he would simply hide his bulky view camera under a
large overcoat and sneak into the factory. He justified his actions with
the Utilitarianism philosophy. Although it may be wrong to falsely
represent himself, the greater injustice was the exploitation of children.
More recently, journalists have used the same philosophy to justify their
questionable actions.
A famous misrepresentation/hidden camera case is the Mirage Tavern
story by the Chicago Sun-Times. Photographers hid in a secret
compartment above a bathroom and photographed reporters giving bribes to
corrupt city inspection officials. Pamela Zekman, the principal reporter
for the project, does not support such techniques in a private home, but
thinks "it to be an acceptable technique in a public place, like the
Mirage" (Goodwin, 1987, p. 188).
Freelance photographer, J. Ross Baughman's Pulitzer Prize winning
photographs of Rhodesian soldiers torturing their victims were withdrawn
from the Overseas Press Club (OPQ competition because of "so many
unresolved questions about their authenticity." Baughman, who has
infiltrated Nazi and Ku Klux Klan groups in the United States "had worn a
Rhodesian soldier's uniform, carried a gun and joined a Rhodesian cavalry
patrol for two weeks in order to get the pictures." John Durniak, picture
editor for Time magazine and a member of the OPC stated that "the
jury felt the pictures had been posed" ("Pulitzer photos," 1978, p. 5).
When a photographer misrepresents him or herself and becomes a participant
to violent actions, credibility should be severely questioned.
Persons would change their actions, especially if they were involved in
a criminal activity, if they knew a photographer were capturing their
movements. Therefore, the use of long and hidden lenses are sometimes
justified. Former president of NPPA, Bill Sanders admitted that if "a city
official was using city trucks and work crews for personal jobs" it would
be acceptable to use hidden cameras in public places (Goodwin, 1987, p.
189). Editors and photographers need to weigh the public's right to know
against the paper's need for credible news practices that can be defended.
A Minneapolis Star Tribune reader criticized photographer Stormi
Greener for taking a picture of a mother spanking her child that was part
of a story on a family near "the edge of serious abuse" of their children.
"Greener," the reader wrote, "could have helped her wash a dish, bathe a
child, buy groceries for the week. The mother needed some help . . . not
the documentation of her treatment of those poor kids on film."
Greener admitted that she could have easily helped the family by giving
money to the mother. "But our story," Greener explained, "was not about a
journalist coming to the aid of the family. My job was to take an honest
look at a family in a struggle. I was guilt-ridden and frustrated with the
ethics that I had to live with, [but] the first rule of journalism is to
divorce yourself from your subject . . . and do nothing but document and
record. . . ." Would Greener have dropped her objectivity principle if the
mother was severely beating her child? Greener asserted that had the
mother abused the child, she would have intervened (Cunningham, 1989, p.
8).
The principle of objectivity is valued among the journalism profession.
But taken to its extreme can result in the loss of a subject's life when
help could have easily been rendered. Bill Murphy of the Oregon
Journal tried his best to be a compassionate journalist. While trying
to convince a man not to leap from a bridge, Murphy also took pictures.
Unfortunately, he was unsuccessful in his attempts to convince the man not
to jump. The man leaped to his death. Murphy was severely criticized by
readers who asked why he took pictures instead of helping. Despite
admitting that "I did all I could," he was in agony over his decision.
Cecil Andrews Protests Unemployment
Greener and Murphy know there are limits to a journalist's strict
interpretation of the objectivity principle. Two television news
journalists did not set such limits. The two recorded on videotape an
obviously distraught man who set himself on fire. They hid behind the
principle of objectivity to justify capturing a dramatic piece of news
film that their station did not even put on the air.
Cecil Andrews was an unemployed roofer in the small town of
Jacksonville, Alabama (Gordon, 1983, pp. 11-17). He called the TV station
late in the evening and said he would set himself on fire to protest
unemployment in America. Ron Simmons and his part-time assistant, Gary
Harris, who thought Andrews sounded intoxicated, made several calls to the
police warning them about Andrews and where to meet him. Andrews, Simmons,
and Harris met in a dark, downtown park. Simmons was concerned that he
could not see any police officials. If they were hiding in the bushes, he
thought he could signal them by turning on his camera light. But when he
did, Andrews squeezed charcoal lighter fluid on his pants leg, made
several attempts with matches to light the spot, and eventually started a
small flame. For over 30 seconds, the camera crew let the flame grow
higher before an attempt was made to put out the fire. By that time, the
fire was out of control. Andrews started running across the park, his body
a terrifying ball of flame. Luckily, a volunteer fireman with an
extinguisher was there to save Andrews' life. Andrews survived with severe
injuries. He later filed a $4 million suit against the television news
crew.
On national television news shows, special reports, and on front pages
of newspapers across the country, the story was reported-not the story of
Cecil Andrews protesting unemployment, but the story of two journalists
who watched a man trying to kill himself. Typical of the response from the
media was a Time magazine story that called the camera crew's
actions a "gruesome result of lapses in communication and judgment."
The situation brings to mind Malcolm Browne's coverage of a Buddhist
monk who set himself on fire to protest the Diem regime's crackdown on his
religion. Newspaper editorial writers at the time "maintained that the
newsmen should have intervened." The media is often criticized for
contributing to the violence they cover. Journalists noticed that Iranian
students outside the American Embassy in Tehran during the hostage crisis
in 1979 only yelled their insults against America when the red lights of
the television cameras were lit. The police chief of Jacksonville, Alabama
summed up the popular opinion when he told the Associated Press that "I'm
not trying to condemn the news media but it's a fact when you have lights
and cameras that people are going to perform for the cameras" (Gordon,
1983, pp. 12-13).
Cecil Andrews would not have set himself on fire if no news personnel
had shown up at the park. He orchestrated the photo opportunity, like any
public relations person, to promote his cause. Andrews knew that the
television reporters would be interested in a dramatic, eye-catching
visual demonstration. One reason protest marchers for any issue carry
signs is because they know that media personnel like to see highly visual
slogans written on signs.
Two questions remain: If a journalist knows he or she is being
manipulated by a subject, should the event be covered? and, Once a
decision to cover the event is made, should a journalist step in to help a
subject in physical trouble?
It seems unlikely that journalism will ever come to a point when it can
resist being manipulated by subjects. Press conferences and White House
photo opportunities are scheduled all the time to allow reporters access
to governmental officials. Local organizers of craft and art fairs make it
easy for photographers to cover their charitable events by giving
information and schedules to editorial staffs. But during a demonstration,
photographers can make sure that their presence does not contribute to the
violence. A thoughtful photojournalist should watch the demonstrators
closely, perhaps from a far vantage point, As more journalists with their
cameras arrive at the scene, does the intensity level of the protesters
seem to grow? Does a demonstrator ask to have his or her picture taken? If
the protest occurs at night, do the protesters react to a camera's flash
or a video camera's light? These are some questions you can ask yourself
to help determine if the media's presence and not the issue is creating
news. Unfortunately, when protesters and police are battling, no matter
the contributing factors, it is a major news story that should be covered.
Knowing what is and what is not news (as detailed in chapter 2) becomes
extremely important in these situations. The arrest of many protesters is
clearly news. The self-immolation of a possibly drunk individual is not
news. But the fact that two videographers taped a man trying to kill
himself instead of preventing the act, is news.
News Photographer magazine often reports stories of journalists
putting away their cameras and helping people in trouble (see "Helping
hands," 1983; "Shoot or help?," 1980; "Walkie-talkie," 1983). Ed Bradley
of CBS rushed to rescue refugees from Vietnam off the coast of Malaysia.
Reporter Christine Wolff of the Bradenton Herald (FL) physically
prevented a man from jumping off a bridge until state troopers arrived.
Arriving at the scene of a serious car crash before emergency personnel,
Cramer Gallimore of the Fayetteville, North Carolina
Observer-Times, stopped the bleeding from a head wound of one of
the drivers before he made pictures. At another assignment, Gallimore
rushed into a burning apartment building to save the life of a hysterical
woman. Photographer John Doman and writer Chuck Laszewski of the St. Paul,
Minnesota Pioneer Press saved a woman from possible drowning. Doman
used his portable radio to call the police for help.
Jeff Greenfield on ABC's "Nightline" program feels that journalists
should always help a subject "where you as an individual have a direct
possibility of stopping a life-threatening piece of behavior. Put down
your pad and pencil, put down the camera; save the life. You can get the
story later, if indeed there is a story" (Gordon, 1983, p. 17).
One of the largest index sections in the NPPA directory (1989) is a
list of stories in News Photographer on relationships between the
press and the police. From 1978, over 45 articles have been published
about the issue. Problems with the police typically result from overly
anxious police officers, during an emotionally charged situation, who do
not understand the reporting rights of journalists. Sometimes, however, a
photographer exasperates the situation with an impolite or cavalier
attitude (Adaskaveg, 1985, pp. 8-12).
One of the primary principles for journalists is the monitoring
function. Reporters observe government officials to make sure individual
rights are not violated. But when those officials do not want to be
monitored, problems can result. Alec Costerus, a freelance photographer
for the Boston Globe, AP, and UPI, was driving to his parents home
in Marion, Massachusetts late one night. He saw a police car with its blue
lights flashing and decided to stop. Costerus observed two teenagers
suspected of driving while intoxicated being beaten up by the police
officers. Costerus identified himself and started taking pictures. He was
immediately arrested and charged with interfering with a police officer.
Costerus was acquitted and he was eventually awarded $24,000 in damages,
but that is not the important issue. From his case, guidelines were
established by the Marion police department that stated "the mere presence
of a photographer or reporter at an accident, crime or disaster scene, and
the mere taking of pictures . . . relative to the incident do not, in
themselves, constitute unlawful interference with police activity and
should not be restricted" (Holland, 1989, p. 4). NPPA and Mark Hertzberg,
regional director and photographer for the Racine, Wisconsin
Journal-Times, drafted guidelines for police/press relations in 1981.
The guidelines are meant to be "incorporated into a [police] department's
training manual" (Guidelines, 1989, p. 36).
Despite NPPA's best wishes, photographers usually do not have good
relationships with police personnel. Seminars and lectures explaining the
roles of each group are helpful to create better understanding.
Photographers should respect the difficult jobs police officials have.
That respect starts with obeying traffic and trespass laws. Photographers
are divided on the issue. In a national survey, a photographer said that
"Breaking any kind of law should be extremely unethical, although we all
fudge a little bit on the accelerator. I will not park illegally as
television vans do. But what do you do when you need close access and
there is no parking?" A director of photography has a direct answer, "I
feel very strongly that especially with regards to traffic laws all
journalists should be accountable and not feel above the law" (Lester,
1989, p. 106).
At a news scene, photojournalists should be especially careful not to
unduly upset victims or their families. Many problems with the police are
a result of a photographer trying to get too close to a distressed
subject. A police officer will often try to protect such an individual.
Whenever possible, use long, telephoto lenses. Speak simply, directly, and
politely to any police officer who asks you questions. If an officer gives
you trouble, try to speak to his or her superior or save the issue for a
later meeting with police officials after emotions have cooled. Remember
that you may be right, but it is hard to take pictures while handcuffed.
Pack and Pool Photojournalism
Deadline and competitive pressures are blamed for contributing to pack
journalism. Writers and photographers must produce meaningful stories and
photographs within a narrowly defined time frame. As a result, journalists
often ban together into a media mob so that no event, no matter how
trivial, will be missed. The media was criticized for its coverage of the
1988 presidential campaign because journalists concentrated on photo
opportunities orchestrated by campaign handlers instead of
under-the-surface issues. Journalists need to break from the pack and find
stories and pictures that are not a part of a handler's plan. The main
story is not always what the candidate looks like when speaking to a
crowd. Photographers need to observe quickly developing human interest
moments that only occur outside the special press section next to the
candidate's podium. Remember the maxim: Only hacks travel in packs.
When access to an assignment is unusually limited, photographers often
find themselves members of a pool with reporters and videographers. In a
photo pool, a photographer is allowed access to an important news event
with the understanding that the pictures produced will be shared openly
with other news organizations. The U.S. government was severely criticized
by members of the journalism community when it barred reporters and
photojournalists access during the invasion of Grenada. Consequently,
photo pools were established during the invasion of Panama. The day
following hurricane Hugo's rampage across South Carolina in 1989, Tom
Fowler (1990) of the South Carolina Educational Television network
provided news footage taken by a videographer in a government helicopter
at courtesy credit to any news organization who wanted it. Because access
to the South Carolina beaches by journalists was severely limited, the
photo pool gave the public vital visual information that would otherwise
been unknown.
Photojournalists, especially freelance photographers' need to be sure
that members of a pool are selected fairly. Although a pool of
photographers were selected, a rescue picture of a man trapped in his car
for 4 days after the 1989 earthquake in San Francisco was taken by one of
the rescue workers. The picture was used in several newspapers, despite
objections from members of the pool (personal communication, March 1990).
The Need for Accurate Captions
The verbal information that photographers gather during an assignment
is as crucial to the reporting process as taking pictures. Facts, whether
verbal or visual, need to be absolutely accurate. When a photographer
misspells a person's name or juggles the order of participants in a group
portrait by mistake, the result can be embarrassing, but not serious. But
if a major fact is wrong, the result can be devastating. Photographs of
the family of teacher-in-space, Christa McAuliffe were mislabeled in the
captions. Three photographers thought they were taking pictures of the
family reacting to the shuttle's explosion. The pictures all show what
could easily be interpreted as a family reacting to an extremely stressful
moment-the death of their loved one. There is open-mouth screaming,
crying, and hugging among the family members. The subjects in the
pictures, however, are simply animatedly reacting to the shuttle's
lift-off.
Jim Cole, an AP stringer, summed up the feelings of the photographers
involved in the caption controversy. "Obviously this mistake has caused me
considerable and personal anguish. While it will always be my loss, I hope
photographers and editors will be able to profit from my experience"
("Photographers' caption," 1986). Either as a result of deadline pressure
that prevented a thorough investigation of the facts or heat-of-the-moment
concentration that ignored important details, photographers must be sure
that they remain calm and accurate reporters.
Pressure from Contests
Contests are often blamed for contributing to an atmosphere of hectic
competition among staff photographers. Competition can be healthy. It
encourages all involved to produce their best work. But when competition
is combined with an emphasis on contests, unethical actions can sometimes
result.
In a national survey of 157 newspaper editors, "most newspapers . . .
had policies, usually informal, that encourages prize seeking." It was
also found that most editors encourage their reporters to enter contests
(Coulson, 1988). As with competition, contests can be positive.
Photographers in another national survey generally agreed that contests
can improve a shooter's output. "We're probably the only profession with
such an emphasis on awards. However, it does allow us to measure ourselves
and our work against others in the rest of the country," wrote one
photographer. Another photojournalist wrote that contests "improve the
quality of photos by providing good examples to younger shooters." A third
photographer made the point that "In many ways competition helps improve
quality over the years, but photographing grief is usually done simply to
get a clip winner" (Lester, 1989, p. 110). Another valuable function of
contests is that the winners are published in News Photographer and
other magazines, along with the stories behind them. The problem with
contests is that their results are often inconsistent. Judging is often
subjective with few but the winners satisfied. Judges select contest
winners for a variety of reasons. Most picture prizes, it is hoped, are
given on the basis of good journalism. But judges sometimes let personal
likes and dislikes, personality conflicts among judges, and simple fatigue
sway results. Although the size of the picture and the reproduction
quality of tearsheets are overlooked in competitions, judges do not always
follow that mandate. Judges in the Pictures of the Year contest are
typically asked to select winners out of over 36,000 photographs and
tearsheets. It is an exhausting task. Good pictures sometimes fall through
the cracks.
When a photography staff emphasizes contests as raise and promotion
requirements, the politics within the department can become critical.
Friction between photographers and editors often results when photographs
are cropped, used small, and on an inside page despite a photographer's
recommendations. Photographers know that a larger size will influence some
contest judges. Photographers will complain when other staff members get
better assignments. Instead of sharing information and helping one
another, photographers become secretive and jealous. Editors should never
require photographers to enter contests. Likewise, raises and promotions
should be decided on the contribution the photographer has made to the
community by a consistent body of solid photojournalism. Editors, those
who are familiar with a photographer's work, should make crucial career
decisions and not judges who view only a small sample.
An ideal competition would be a monthly clip contest in which first,
second, and third places are chosen for the assignment categories by
judges outside the photographers' region. A monthly publication would
immediately publish the judges' results and comments. Technical and
background information from the photographers would also be included. No
points would be awarded as no end-of-the-year winner would be selected.
Such a contest would award a photographer's effort, let others know what
content is most respected by members of the profession, and relieve much
of the stress associated with traditional contests.
Stressful Assignments Take Their Toll
Too many deadlines, contests, and gruesome assignments can be dangerous
to a photographer's mental and physical health. Photojournalism is a
highly stressful profession. Besides the everyday life stresses that all
must face, photojournalists must also deal with picture demands from
editors and writers, technical decisions that determine proper exposure
and coverage, assignment schedules that are sometimes vague or conflict
with other events, and subjects that are uncooperative, grieving, or dead.
Within a few years on the job, a photojournalist learns all the ways
people die-drowning, car and plane crashes, murders, and many mind numbing
accidents. And as with others who witness such dreadful events-police,
fire and ambulance workers, nurses, and doctors-post-traumatic stress
disorder (PTSD) or "battle fatigue" effects photojournalists as well. When
a victim is a small child or a person the photographer knows or can relate
to, the impact can be devastating.
A newspaper writer described the personality of emergency rescue
workers. The description could easily fit most photographers:
Dr. Jeffery Mitchell, a University of Maryland psychologist, travels
around the country setting up programs in local communities to help
"paramedics, firefighters, and police officers cope with tragedies they
see" (Salamone, 1988, p. B-1). Newspaper organizations need to recognize
that PTSD is a condition that can be treated if diagnosed early enough.
Photography editors must know how to recognize a staff photographer who
exhibits symptoms of stress-related illnesses. Journalists should be
included in group discussions for rescue workers that would not only help
those who participate, but would foster appreciation of the problems both
journalists and rescue personnel face. Editors need to give their
photographers adequate time to complete assignments. Picture story
deadlines, for example, need to be realistic. An in-depth lifestyle story
cannot be accomplished in a few hours. If a photographer has a problem
brought on by stress or any other factor, editors need to seek
compassionate help for that valued employee.
Photographers need to be included early in discussions with editors and
writers about stories. Photographers are often told to produce meaningful
pictures in a few hours while a writer has been working on a series of
articles for several months. Photographers need to realize that their
whole world does not revolve around equipment and subject concerns. Strong
personal relationships and interests unrelated to news photography make
photographers more interesting, caring, and relaxed people. If a
photographer feels the stress that the many pressures can apply, he or she
should never hesitate to talk it over with a friend, colleague, or editor
and seek professional help.
PHOTOGRAPHER CONCERNS
Covering Dangerous Assignments
Photographers are sometimes asked to cover assignments that can be
hazardous to their health. Without proper training and safety equipment,
photographers can be injured covering accident scenes where "unstable and
reactive materials, corrosives, liquid, gas and solid flammable materials,
toxic materials, explosives and radioactive materials" are present.
Photographers can also be injured covering a demonstration that turns into
a violent riot. Michael Green of the Detroit News gave advice to
photojournalists covering dangerous assignments. "It's important to stop
and think before going in to [a hazardous area]," Green warns. "It's also
one time you might want to listen to the cops or authorities when they
tell you not to stand some place or enter certain areas" ("Warning," 1986,
pp. 7-11).
At an NPPA convention, Greg Lewis, a professor of journalism gave tips
for covering an assignment that involves hazardous materials:
* use a long lens;
* stay uphill and up wind; do not walk through or touch any liquid;
green, yellow, or orange smoke indicates a chemical source; do not
inhale smoke;
* toxic vapors can be odorless and tasteless; because of the danger
of explosion from internal sparking, motor drives, flashes, and radio
gear should not be carried to a flammable liquids fire;
* assume hazardous materials are involved at any industrial site; and
* if contaminated, seek immediate decontamination. ("Warning," 1986,
p. 11)
* minimize equipment for quick movement;
* travel in pairs;
* know the language of the people you photograph;
* take pictures that show the cost on lives after the firing has
stopped; and
* have clear, journalistic reasons why the violence should be
documented. (p. 126) Personal Appearance as an Issue
For most assignments, dress and personal grooming is a matter of taste
and professionalism and not a matter of ethics. But a photographer's
ethics may be questioned if his or her appearance is inappropriate for an
assignment. In a national survey, photographers were asked to voice their
opinions about attending an assignment while improperly dressed. One
photographer wrote, "You may come to work dressed for a sporting event and
then be called to go on a different assignment. As long as your clothes
are clean and not tacky you should be able to cover almost any
assignment." Another respondent wrote, "If I wanted to wear a tie I'd work
in a bank!" A third photographer said, "Oftentimes the scheduling of
assignments precludes changing clothes. However, dressing appropriately
for the assignment at hand is as important as other ethical concerns"
(Lester, 1989, pp. 103-104).
The appearance issue was hotly debated in the late 1970s when the
television show, "Lou Grant" was aired. Daryl Anderson played the sloppily
dressed and unshaven, "Animal." Many news photographers objected to his
appearance, but producers said that his character was based on real, West
Coast photojournalists. Rich Clarkson, the former director of photography
at National Geographic, said that photojournalists "dress and
behave so poorly that they increasingly face restrictions in covering
major news events." Photographers, Clarkson asserted, are roped off in
out-of-the-way locations during sporting events, out-of-sight of
television cameras and fans, because of their appearance (Sanders, 1986).
A photographer's appearance is never so critical as when a funeral is
covered. Those on the scene judge a photographer's concern for the family
by what the photographer wears. Obviously, cut-off blue jeans and a
T-shirt is inappropriate attire, but photographers have been known to
cover such events wearing not much more. Photographers should have a coat
and a tie or a nice blouse and a skirt in their car in case they are
needed for an unexpected assignment. Mark Hertzberg wrote that "Dress is
an important part of the way the public perceives us and in their
acceptance of us in times of stress. I think many of us can dress better
day-to-day without having to wear a three-piece suit" ("Photographers
give," 1986, p. 24). During a sensitive assignment, if a photographer is
dressed neatly with a tie or skirt, the awkward job of taking pictures is
made a little easier.
Accepting free gifts from subjects can cause a reporter to lose his or
her credibility. How can a photographer be an objective recorder of facts
if money or gifts are changed hands? Richard Oppel, editor of the
Charlotte Observer' (NC) recalled that when he was a young
Associated Press reporter covering the Florida legislature, the press
corps "accepted electric razors as gifts from Gov. Haydon Bums." Oppel
said that "Even the sole woman correspondent got a lady Remington"
(Vaughan, 1989, p. A-16).
Subjects sometimes hand out small gifts or amounts of money in the hope
of buying loyalty or favoritism. Seldom is a gift given as a simple act of
friendship. Journalists need to recognize the practice for what it is and
not succumb to the temptation. A press junket, a trip organized by a
corporation to show correspondents a new operation, can amount to a gift
of thousands of dollars. The Observer, like many newspapers across the
country, do not allow their reporters to accept anything for free from any
source. Just as newspapers should pay for a movie critic's ticket and a
food critic's meal, if a story is worth covering, the paper should pick up
the entire tab for any writers or photographers.
One photographer said that "The gifts we are allowed to receive must
not exceed $5 in value." A director of photography at a newspaper admitted
that "if after the work has been published, a subject wants to offer
something out of friendship, I will make a trade, offering prints." Photo
sales is a common practice with newspaper photographers, but they should
be handled by a business manager and not the individual photographers.
Another director of photography said simply, "Company policy is we accept
nothing" (Lester, 1989, p. 105).
Television journalist, Linda Ellerbee was severely criticized by
journalism professionals for accepting a large amount of money to
participate in a series of television commercials for a coffee producer.
Making paid, public endorsements for any product damages a journalist's
credibility. As Loren Ghiglione, president of the American Society of
Newspaper Editors said, "the public demands higher and higher standards
from public officials, and journalists are feeling that too" (Vaughan,
1989, p. A-16).
READER CONCERNS
Nude or Embarrassing Images
Just as with gruesomely violent images that editors place on their
front pages, embarrassing or obscene behavior by subjects caught with a
camera, can produce a flood of mail from readers who object to the
pictures. Editors need to be sensitive to the taste of readers, but not be
guided exclusively by those changing standards.
Many editorial decisions are based on a publication's readership.
London's Fleet street newspapers have a reputation for printing pictures
of scantily clad, beach-strolling women. The New York Daily News
often prints the same subject in its tabloid. Editors print these images
because their readers expect to see them. Many readers would complain if
the pictures were omitted. The same kind of pictures found within the
vertical fold-out of Playboy magazine would never be considered by
an editor of a "family-oriented" newspaper.
A college newspaper sometimes covers subjects that are not covered
because of the acceptance level of readers. When running nude through
college campuses, streaking, was popular in the late 1970s, college
photographers regularly covered the over-exposed subjects. The Daily
Collegian, the student newspaper for Pennsylvania State University,
printed a bare-chested winner of a wet T-shirt contest. Kathleen Pavelko,
columnist for the Collegian, wrote that the picture was printed not
because of its nudity, "but as a student phenomenon and a possible trend
on American college campuses. The contest was a slice of student life"
(Goodwin, 1987, p. 218).
Hal Buell of the Associated Press admits that nudity is a delicate
subject with readers. "We will not carry full frontal views of nude men or
women except in a most extreme case," wrote Buell. "We will transmit
pictures of bare bosoms when such pictures are pertinent to the story." A
bare-chested protester during the 1972 political convention in Miami, a
topless woman on a beach in Denmark, and an opera soprano disrobing at the
end of her aria are examples of AP wire transmissions. Yet most editors
filed the pictures in a desk drawer rather than print the images in their
community newspapers (Mallette, 1976, p. 75).
Don Black could not get his pictures published by his newspaper because
editors were worried about shocking their readers. Black made pictures
that showed a father delivering his own son. His pictures later ran in
People magazine (Mallette, 1976, pp. 218-219).
Some newspapers stay away from pictures that show famous people looking
silly or embarrassed. Many papers would not print pictures of President
Ford who was caught tripping on several occasions by photographers. When
presidential candidate, Edmund Muskie cried during a campaign, some
editors did not print the picture. When President Reagan wiggled his
fingers during a White House news photographers banquet, Rich Lipski of
United Press International captured the gesture that many editors did not
print ("Gotcha!," 1983).
One-finger gestures give editors more problems than Reagan's wriggling
hands. Vice President Nelson Rockefeller was pictured by Don Black "giving
the finger to Binghamton, N. Y. hecklers" in 1976. Harry Thernal (1987) of
the Wilmington, Delaware Morning News-Journal, recalled that
editors were concerned that if Rockefeller's picture was published,
children might "think it's all right to copy the gestures" (p. 11).
Thernal was involved with another obscene gesture controversy at his
newspaper. Ernest Parsons, a convicted double murderer, raised both of his
middle fingers of his chained hands for Ronald Cortes' camera. The picture
ran on the front page of the Morning News-Journal. Themal wrote
that "The phone was already ringing as I stepped into the office. It
didn't stop ringing for hours as caller after caller complained about the
picture's being published on the front page." A man said that the picture
was "absolutely tasteless. I found it embarrassing when my 7-year-old son
brought in the paper and turned it to this picture. I've lost all respect
for the newspaper." Another man said, "You shouldn't be glorifying an
individual convicted of murder."
As an answer to the readers' wrath, editor Donald Brandt said that "the
gesture is not as obscene as the crime of which Parsons was found guilty .
. . the photo made an eloquent statement about the obscenity of the
crime." Managing editor, Norm Lockman said that the picture "showed
Parsons utter contempt for society. It offends us, too, but our
photographer's depiction of this anti-social behavior says volumes about
this man" (p. 10).
Context-Excluded Images
Michael Smith, photo director for the Detroit Free Press, was
accused of glorifying a drug dealer by readers because of a photograph
that was printed. Richard Carter, reputed to be one of Detroit's major
cocaine dealers, was shot to death in a hospital bed. He was buried in a
$16,000 casket "customized to look like a Mercedes-Benz-complete with
wheels, grill and headlights." George Waldman made a picture of Carter
that showed his body lying in the open casket. Although some readers
objected to seeing a corpse, most complained that the picture glorified
the drug dealer. Smith said that the picture "says a lot about the drug
culture in Detroit in 1988." Reader representative, Joe Grimm (1989)
admitted that the picture did no make it clear enough that the casket
"symbolized unabashed arrogance and ignorance of drug dealers who have
contributed greatly to Detroit's toll of young shoot ing victims" (p. 3
1). The context of a picture, explained in a story or column, will diffuse
much of the protest about a controversial picture.
AIDS research and care are highly emotionally charged issues. When
covering the AIDS story, photographers usually concentrate their efforts
on those unfortunate individuals who are close to death. Alon Reininger
has traveled the world for many years to document the AIDS crisis. His
portrait of Ken Meeks, who died shortly after the picture was taken, shows
a man sitting in a wheelchair, lesions covering hi arms, and staring at
the camera with a hauntingly vacant look (" 150 years," 1989)
During Nicholas Nixon's Museum of Modem Art show where he presented hi
work, "People with AIDS," a protest group handed out fliers. The flier
stated that photographers who portray the emancipated bodies of AIDS
victims show "people to be pitied or feared, as people alone and lonely."
The gallery exhibit "perpetuate general misconceptions about AIDS without
addressing the realities of those of us living every day with the crisis."
According to the New York activist group, ACT UP, the reality of a life
with AIDS is more optimistic, but less visually dramatic. Because of
"experimental drug treatments, [and] better information about nutrition
and holistic care," AIDS patients are living longer (Grover, 1989).
Editors should never publish shocking pictures for their shock value
alone. No responsible editor would contemplate such an action. The days
when a publisher can make a large amount of money with a sensational
picture on the front page are long over. Publishers reveal that a
newspaper's profits are made from selling advertising, not papers. If
anything, such a dependence would cause editors to be more conservative in
their picture choices so as not to offend advertisers. Don Black and other
photographers worry that editors are, in fact, too timid when it comes to
pictures and stories that might shock or offend some readers. "Failing to
run an important news picture for fear of reader response," Black says,
"is indulging in a form of censorship" (Goodwin, 1987, p. 219). The public
never learns the whole truth, however, when graphically visual images are
devoid of a fuller context.
Images of Children in Dangerous Situations
Occasionally, an editor will hear complaints from readers who object to
the showing of children not playing safely. Human interest pictures of
children jumping from a second floor window onto several stacked
mattresses, playing with fire or guns, or floating on hand-made rafts on a
river, might give editors problems. The Florida Supreme Court recently
ruled that a soft drink company "is not liable for damages suffered by a
teenager who broke his neck and was paralyzed when he copied a stunt he
saw in a Mountain Dew television commercial" (Van Gieson, 1989, p. D-9).
The ruling could probably be applied to a parent's lawsuit if a child was
injured copying an unsafe act printed in the newspaper. Responsible
editors, however, will avoid such tragic confrontations.
EDITORS LIST THEIR ETHICAL CONCERNS
Bill Phillips (personal communication, March 27, 1990), director of
photography and Bill Dunn, managing editor of The Orlando Sentinel,
have come up with 16 areas of sensitivity "that should raise a flag on all
desks-though not an automatic signal to kill." The 16 subject categories
that might give picture editors trouble include:
Photojournalism An Ethical Approach
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Ethical concerns are
more common conversational topics among news personnel than in past years.
A discussion of ethics among journalists moves photographers from a mob of
"animals" who are only concerned for their next contest-winning picture to
a fraternity of professionals who deeply care about their rights as
journalists and the public they serve.
* Police/press relations,
At
first glance, the 20 miscellaneous issues do not seem to be related. But
they can be divided into three areas: organizational, photographer, and
reader concerns.
* job-related stress,
*
proper dress,
* helping or taking a picture,
* objectivity,
* the use of hidden cameras,
* office politics,
* accepting
gifts,
* nude subjects,
* deadline pressures,
* photo packs
and pools,
* Obeying minor traffic laws,
* encouraging violence
with presence,
* misrepresentation,
* contest pressure,
*
comical, obscene, or offensive subjects,
* inaccurate caption
information,
* children shown not playing safely,
* covering
hazardous assignments, and
* context-excluded images.Emergency-service workers tend to be perfectionists; they
have an eye for detail and enjoy taking risks. Typically highly
dedicated, they want to set things right and hate to take no for an
answer. They often develop a false sense of security-they have always
tolerated the pressure, and assume they always will.
Those
suffering from PTSD "may become depressed, refuse help, hallucinate, quit
jobs and families, even kill themselves" (Spitzer & Franklin, 1988, p.
E-4). A stressed photographer may also turn to alcohol and drugs as
short-term relief.
* when you first arrive at the scene, check with a police or
fire commander for information about the hazardous materials;
Time magazine photographer, Bill Pierce
(1983), has covered combat zones in troubled areas throughout the world.
Pierce has had many photojournalist friends killed and wounded
photographing wars. His advice can be applied to newspaper photographers
covering violent events in their own communities.
* wear a flak jacket all the time;
Editors have a responsibility for the
safety of their personnel. Safety concerns start with proper ventilation
and handling of photographic materials (Tell, 1988). Jim Jennings of the
Lexington, Kentucky Herald-Leader said that covering the news
should not "take precedence over the safety of their personnel." An editor
must never put photographers "into a situation that is even remotely
life-threatening" ("Warning," 1986, p. 10).
* body shots,
Inevitably, there will be other, unique issues that
will test the ethics of photographers and editors. With a solid and sure
philosophical foundation, an understanding of the many conflicting
opinions, and an emphasis on journalistic credibility, decisions can be
defended with confidence.
* gore, grief,
* the physically and
mentally afflicted,
* vulgar gestures,
* cheesecake and
beefcake,
* otherwise sexually offensive pictures (includes
see-through and sexy fashion photography),
* racial or ethnic
stereotypes (includes those that inflame),
* pictures that embarrass
or ridicule,
* invasion of privacy,
* trespass,
* posing
news pictures,
* mechanically manipulated images,
* kids doing
dangerous things,
* juveniles being arrested, and
* dead
animals.